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Cell Theory

All living things are made of cells; cells are the basic unit of life; all cells come from pre-existing cells

Mitochondria

Organelle that produces ATP through cellular respiration; has its own DNA; double membrane structure

Chloroplast

Organelle in plant cells that carries out photosynthesis; contains chlorophyll; has its own DNA

DNA Structure

Double helix of nucleotides; A pairs with T, G pairs with C; sugar-phosphate backbone; antiparallel strands

RNA vs DNA

RNA is single-stranded, uses uracil instead of thymine, has ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose

Mitosis

Cell division producing two identical daughter cells; phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

Meiosis

Cell division producing four haploid gametes; involves crossing over and independent assortment; two rounds of division

Photosynthesis Equation

6CO₂ + 6H₂O + light energy → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

Cellular Respiration Equation

C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + ATP (30-32 ATP per glucose)

Natural Selection

Organisms with favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce; requires variation, heritability, and differential reproduction

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

p² + 2pq + q² = 1; conditions: no mutation, no selection, no migration, random mating, large population

Krebs Cycle

Occurs in mitochondrial matrix; produces 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH₂ per glucose; also called citric acid cycle

Enzyme Function

Biological catalysts that lower activation energy; substrate-specific; affected by temperature, pH, and concentration

Active Transport

Movement of molecules against concentration gradient; requires ATP; examples: sodium-potassium pump

Passive Transport

Movement of molecules down concentration gradient; no ATP required; includes diffusion and osmosis

Osmosis

Diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane from low to high solute concentration

Transcription

DNA → mRNA in the nucleus; RNA polymerase reads template strand 3' to 5'; mRNA is built 5' to 3'

Translation

mRNA → protein at ribosomes; tRNA brings amino acids; codons are read in sets of three nucleotides

Dominant vs Recessive

Dominant allele masks recessive; homozygous dominant (AA), heterozygous (Aa), homozygous recessive (aa)

Punnett Square

Diagram used to predict genotype and phenotype ratios of offspring from a genetic cross

Gene Expression

Process by which DNA information is used to synthesize functional products like proteins

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Rough ER has ribosomes (protein synthesis); Smooth ER lacks ribosomes (lipid synthesis, detoxification)

Golgi Apparatus

Modifies, packages, and ships proteins and lipids; receives from ER; sends vesicles to cell membrane

ATP Structure

Adenosine triphosphate; adenine + ribose + 3 phosphate groups; energy stored in phosphate bonds

Ecological Succession

Primary: starts from bare rock; Secondary: starts from disturbed ecosystem; ends at climax community

Food Web

Interconnected food chains showing energy flow; energy decreases ~90% at each trophic level

Symbiosis Types

Mutualism: both benefit; Commensalism: one benefits, other unaffected; Parasitism: one benefits, other harmed

Genetic Drift

Random changes in allele frequency in small populations; bottleneck effect and founder effect

Speciation

Formation of new species; allopatric (geographic isolation) vs sympatric (same location, reproductive isolation)

Homeostasis

Maintenance of stable internal conditions; uses negative feedback loops; examples: body temperature, blood glucose

Water Properties

Cohesion, adhesion, high specific heat, universal solvent, density anomaly (ice floats)

pH Scale

Measures hydrogen ion concentration; 0-14 scale; 7 is neutral; below 7 acidic; above 7 basic

Lipids

Fats, oils, waxes; hydrophobic; made of glycerol + fatty acids; energy storage and cell membranes

Proteins

Made of amino acids; 20 types; peptide bonds; 4 structural levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary

Carbohydrates

Sugars and starches; monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides; quick energy source; C:H:O ratio 1:2:1

Nucleic Acids

DNA and RNA; made of nucleotides; store and transmit genetic information

Cell Membrane Structure

Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins; fluid mosaic model; selectively permeable

Immune System

Innate (non-specific) and adaptive (specific) immunity; B cells make antibodies; T cells kill infected cells

Nervous System

Neurons transmit electrical signals; synapse uses neurotransmitters; central (brain/spinal cord) and peripheral

Endocrine System

Hormone-based signaling; slower than nervous system; pituitary is master gland; uses feedback loops

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